Europe’s butterflies: What Red Lists reveal about their decline

Many people are now reporting something similar: where numerous butterflies still flew over meadows, gardens, roadside verges or embankments in summer a few years ago, today there are often only a few—or none at all—to be seen. Such observations are initially personal and local; they depend on the weather, the availability of flowers, the timing of mowing and many other factors. Yet they fit a broader pattern also shown by scientific data: Europe’s butterflies are under severe pressure.

This is clearly visible in Red Lists. They show which species have stable populations, which are declining and which face a high risk of extinction. Alongside the European Red List, many countries have their own national assessments. These differ in how current they are, their methodology and their scope: some cover only butterflies, while others also include burnet moths or other groups of Lepidoptera; some strictly follow IUCN categories, while others use national classification systems.

Despite these differences, country-specific lists present a largely consistent picture: in many well-studied European countries, a substantial proportion of butterfly species has disappeared or is threatened by population decline. Looking at individual countries shows that the decline is not visible only in figures, but in specific habitats: in meadows, peatlands, forest edges, gardens and areas that were once rich in species.

Europe: Almost one in three species is threatened or near threatened

The European Red List of Butterflies of 2025 shows that the decline has long affected more than isolated regions. 442 European butterfly species were assessed. The Madeiran large white (Pieris wollastoni) is now considered globally extinct; this leaves 441 extant species or subspecies for calculating threat categories. Of these, 65 taxa are threatened—14.7%. A further 60 are near threatened. Together, 125 species, or 28.3% of European butterflies, are threatened or near threatened.

The situation has deteriorated substantially since the previous assessment. In 2010, 37 taxa were considered threatened; in 2025, there are 65. The number of threatened taxa has therefore risen by 76%. The increase is even greater among highly threatened species and subspecies: the number of endangered and critically endangered taxa has more than doubled, from 15 to 41. At the same time, more than 50% of butterflies for which population trends are available are declining.

Threat is not distributed evenly. Specialist species are frequently affected, as they depend on particular habitats, food plants or local climatic conditions. Endemic species are especially at risk, occurring only in Europe or even in individual regions: of the remaining European endemics, more than 40% are threatened or near threatened.

Butterfly loss: What national Red Lists show

After the European overview, it is worth looking at individual countries. The following examples are not a ranking, because the Red Lists of individual countries differ in how current they are, their methodology and their scope. Nevertheless, they show how clearly butterfly loss is already visible in many national threat assessments—in intensively farmed areas as well as mountain regions, wetlands and species-rich Mediterranean landscapes.

Germany: More than half extinct, threatened or extremely rare

Germany’s current Red List of 2025 assessed a total of 207 established species and subspecies of butterflies and burnet moths. Ten taxa are extinct or missing, and another 93 are threatened: 13 are critically endangered, 51 endangered, 27 vulnerable, 11 extremely rare and 2 fall into the category “threat of unknown extent”. A further 11 taxa are extremely rare.

This means that 114 of the 207 assessed taxa are extinct, missing, threatened or extremely rare—55% in total. Only 71 species and subspecies, around one third, are currently considered not threatened. Compared with the previous Red List of 2011, deteriorations outnumber improvements: 49 taxa were placed in a higher threat category, while only 29 improved.

Austria: Almost two thirds of butterflies extinct or threatened

For Austria, the currently valid nationwide Red List of butterflies is still the 2005 list. It assesses 215 established butterfly species. Of these, 5 taxa are regionally extinct or missing, 40 are critically endangered, 44 endangered and 46 vulnerable. Thus, 135 species or subspecies, or 63%, are in a threat category or have already disappeared.

A new Red List is currently being prepared. The Austrian Nature Conservation Association reported in May 2026 that the “Red List of Austrian butterflies” is being comprehensively updated after more than two decades. The surveys completed so far already indicate that “more than 50%” of Austria’s butterfly fauna is threatened.

Switzerland: More than half extinct, threatened or near threatened

The currently valid Red List of Swiss butterflies and burnet moths was published in 2014 and is based on data from 2012. It assessed 226 species and subspecies: 201 butterflies and 25 burnet moths. Of these, 78 taxa, or 35%, are extinct or threatened. Three taxa are extinct in Switzerland, 10 critically endangered, 27 endangered and 38 vulnerable. Another 44 species and subspecies, around 20%, are classed as near threatened.

Adding these groups together, 122 of the 226 assessed butterflies and burnet moths in Switzerland are extinct, threatened or near threatened—around 54%. An update is already under way: a new field survey is scheduled from 2024 to 2029, with the next Red List due to be published in 2029.

Netherlands: Only 38% of butterflies are not threatened

The current Dutch Red List of butterflies dates from 2019. It was prepared by De Vlinderstichting and formally adopted that year. Of the 76 assessed butterfly species and subspecies, 15 have disappeared from the Netherlands. Another 12 taxa are critically endangered, 10 endangered, 7 vulnerable and 3 near threatened. Only 29 taxa, or 38%, are currently not classed as threatened.

Compared with the 2006 Red List, the number of species in Red List categories remained the same: 47 species were then also classified as disappeared, threatened or near threatened. The composition has changed, however. Two butterfly species that had previously disappeared were recorded again, while two more species are now classed as threatened. Populations declined particularly sharply between 1950 and 1990, but the decline continued afterwards: over the past 25 years, the number of butterflies in the Netherlands has fallen by 43%.

Great Britain: Every second remaining species is threatened or near threatened

The revised Red List of British butterflies was published in 2022. It covers Great Britain—England, Scotland and Wales—rather than the whole United Kingdom, including Northern Ireland. Sixty-two regularly occurring or formerly native species and subspecies were assessed. Four of them are extinct in Great Britain.

Of the 58 remaining taxa, 24 are threatened: 8 are critically endangered and 16 vulnerable. A further 5 are classed as near threatened. In total, this affects 29 species—every second British butterfly species still recorded today. The situation has worsened significantly since the 2011 assessment: the proportion of threatened species and subspecies has risen from 23 to 41%.

Spain: Almost one in three species is threatened

In 2026, Spain presented the Atlas y Libro Rojo de las Mariposas Españolas atlas and Red Book. The publication evaluates data on 261 butterfly species and subspecies recorded in Spain. Seventy-nine taxa, or 30%, are threatened: 2 are critically endangered, 52 endangered and 25 vulnerable. A further 31 taxa are near threatened. One hundred and thirty-nine species and subspecies are currently not threatened, 9 were not assessed and data are insufficient for 3.

The European Red List also points to especially sensitive mountain species in southern Spain. These include the blues Agriades zullichi, Polyommatus golgus and Polyommatus violetae. They occur only in high-elevation mountain habitats and are therefore extremely vulnerable to climate change, drought periods and fire.

Spain is important for the European comparison because it has exceptionally high species diversity and contains Mediterranean, mountain and island habitats. Yet even in this species-rich butterfly fauna, a substantial proportion of species and subspecies is already in a threat category.

Czechia: 63% extinct, threatened or near threatened

As Czechia has no separate national Red List covering only butterflies, the basis is the butterfly section (Hesperioidea and Papilionoidea) of the 2017 Red List of Invertebrates. One hundred and sixty-two taxa were assessed; 8 further species were excluded because they are only vagrants or occasional introduced species. Of the assessed butterflies, 17 are regionally extinct, 24 critically endangered, 12 endangered and 25 vulnerable. A further 23 taxa are classed as near threatened. In total, 101 taxa fall into a Red List category or the early-warning category—63% of Czech butterfly fauna.

Compared with the 2005 Red List, the number of regionally extinct or threatened species fell from 86 to 78. At the same time, however, the total number of affected taxa including those near threatened rose from 90 to 101. The authors therefore conclude that the overall condition of Czech butterfly fauna has continued to deteriorate.

Flanders (Belgium): 52% of butterflies have disappeared or are threatened

Flanders serves as the reference for Belgium here because it has a current 2021 IUCN Red List of butterflies. Seventy-five species and subspecies were assessed. Of these, 20 taxa are regionally extinct in Flanders. Another 3 are critically endangered, 7 endangered and 9 vulnerable. Together, this amounts to 39 of the 75 assessed butterfly taxa—52%.

A further 2 species are classed as near threatened; 34 taxa are currently not threatened. Including near-threatened taxa, 41 species and subspecies are affected. The authors point out that the overall situation has improved slightly compared with earlier decades, partly due to newly immigrated species and forest species that now fare better. Butterflies of heathland and nutrient-poor habitats, however, remain in a particularly precarious position. Compared with neighbouring regions, Flanders has the highest proportion of regionally extinct butterfly species.

European France: 85% of butterflies not threatened

The national Red List of butterflies for European France shows lower threat levels than those of many other countries. It assessed 253 species and subspecies in France métropolitaine, meaning European France without overseas territories such as Réunion, Guadeloupe, Martinique or French Guiana. One species is regionally extinct; 2 taxa are critically endangered, 3 endangered and 11 vulnerable. Thus, 17 species are regionally extinct or threatened—6.7%.

A further 18 species and subspecies, or 7.1%, are near threatened. Three taxa could not be assessed due to insufficient data. Two hundred and fifteen species and subspecies are considered not threatened, representing 85% of butterflies in European France.

This comparatively favourable classification should nevertheless be interpreted cautiously. The list dates from 2012, covers a large and highly diverse landscape, and can only be compared to newer or smaller-scale Red Lists to a limited extent. An update of the national Red List is planned or has begun; it is also intended to include burnet moths.

Denmark: 50% disappeared, threatened or near threatened

The figures come from the Aarhus University / DCE Danish Red List of butterflies. The assessment covered 2020–2021, and the evaluation was published in 2023. Of 113 butterfly species and subspecies, 76 were assessed under IUCN criteria. Thirty-seven taxa were not relevant to the assessment, for example because they occur only incidentally, are immigrants or are only becoming established.

Of the assessed taxa, 13 are regionally extinct. A further 3 are critically endangered, 7 endangered and 3 vulnerable. Together, that is 26 species and subspecies, or 34% of assessed butterflies. A further 12 taxa are near threatened. In total, 38 taxa are regionally extinct, threatened or near threatened—exactly half of the assessed butterfly fauna.

The Danish Red List also indicates that many threatened species continue to decline: 65% of butterfly taxa classed as threatened are currently declining.

Sweden: 38% of butterflies are threatened or near threatened

Sweden has a recent national assessment in its 2025 Red List. There is no separate Red List only for butterflies; butterflies are included as a species group in the national overall Red List. According to SLU Artdatabanken, 113 butterfly species and subspecies were considered for Sweden. Of these, 3 taxa are critically endangered, 6 endangered, 16 vulnerable and 18 near threatened. Together, that is 43 taxa—around 38% of Swedish butterfly fauna. Seventy species, or around 62%, are considered not threatened.

At present, no butterfly species is listed as regionally extinct in Sweden. Two species are close to this status, however: the Assmann’s fritillary (Melitaea britomartis) and the Reverdin’s blue (Plebejus argyrognomon) are classified as probably extinct in the Red List. Neither has been reliably recorded for a long time.

What the country comparison shows

Despite their limited comparability, national Red Lists show a clear overall picture: in almost all countries considered, a large share of butterfly taxa is already extinct, threatened or near threatened.

Especially high proportions occur in several countries with heavily altered and intensively used landscapes. In Czechia, 63% of assessed butterflies fall into the categories regionally extinct, threatened or near threatened. In Flanders, Denmark, Switzerland, Germany and Great Britain as well, the share of affected species is around half or more. In the Netherlands, only 38% of assessed taxa are still considered not threatened; monitoring data there also show sharp long-term population declines.

Also striking is the high proportion of species that have already disappeared. In Flanders, 20 of 75 assessed butterfly species are regionally extinct. The share of regionally extinct species is also high in the Netherlands and Denmark. The decline therefore represents not merely a future risk, but has already resulted in real losses in many landscapes.

France stands out by comparison: its Red List for European France classes far more butterflies as not threatened than all other countries considered. Because of its age, spatial scope and data basis, however, this classification must initially be interpreted cautiously.

Lower Red List values in parts of southern Europe do not necessarily mean that the outlook is reassuring. In some regions, long-term, comprehensive monitoring data are lacking, so declines are less visible than in countries with decades of recording.

Overall, it is clear that butterfly decline is not an isolated national problem. Intensively used, highly fragmented or heavily altered landscapes are particularly affected. Most critical is the situation of specialist species that depend on nutrient-poor meadows, peatlands, heathland, open forests, forest edges, dry grasslands or other habitats that have become rare.

Why Europe’s butterflies are disappearing

The causes are not identical in every country, but follow a similar pattern. Butterflies come under pressure chiefly where their habitats disappear, become degraded, are managed too intensively or are no longer managed appropriately.

The loss of species-rich habitats plays a central role. Many butterflies depend on flower-rich meadows, nutrient-poor grasslands, peatlands, heathland, forest edges, open forests or finely structured landscapes. When these areas are fertilised, mown frequently, drained, afforested or converted to cropland or built-up land, nectar plants for adult butterflies disappear. The specialised larval food plants to which many species are tied are often lost too.

The intensification of agriculture is particularly damaging. Frequent mowing, high nitrogen inputs, pesticides and the loss of fallows, field margins, hedgerows and extensively managed meadows make landscapes that were once species-rich scarcely usable for many butterflies. Even if individual flowering plants remain, unmown patches, bare ground, edge structures or a mosaic of differently managed areas are often absent.

At the same time, the abandonment of traditional land use can also be problematic. Many threatened butterflies do not live in untouched wilderness, but in semi-open cultural landscapes created by extensive grazing, mowing or small-scale land use. When such areas are abandoned, they become overgrown with scrub or develop into closed woodland. As a result, warm, nutrient-poor and flower-rich sites disappear.

Landscape fragmentation is another factor. Many populations are now small and isolated from one another. If a local population disappears, it can no longer readily be recolonised from neighbouring areas. This is particularly problematic for butterfly species with limited dispersal ability or very specialised habitat requirements.

Climate change exacerbates this development. Heat, drought, changing precipitation and extreme weather events can directly affect caterpillars, pupae and food plants. In mountains, peatlands, northern regions and on islands, some species are additionally at risk because they have hardly any alternative habitat. Cold-adapted species cannot simply move farther north or to higher elevations when suitable habitats are absent or already highly fragmented.

Another problem is the increasing homogenisation of the landscape. In intensively used agricultural areas, not only individual habitats but entire habitat mosaics disappear. Butterfly communities can therefore appear stable even as their diversity declines: a few mobile, adaptable species persist or even become more common, while specialised, site-faithful species vanish. A study from 2025 describes this pattern as a form of monotonous stability. It explains why butterflies can still be seen in some landscapes even though their species composition has already become severely impoverished.

Low elevations are particularly affected by intensive agriculture. Higher elevations, steep slopes and extensively managed mountain and nutrient-poor meadows can still serve as refuges for many species. In the long term, however, such areas help only if they remain connected and are not also lost through scrub encroachment, afforestation, over-fertilisation or land-use abandonment.

Declines began much earlier

Long-term data (2020) show that the decline began decades ago in many places. It is particularly well documented in Great Britain, the Netherlands and Flanders. In Great Britain, butterfly numbers have fallen overall by about half since 1976; specialised species of particular habitats suffered especially severe losses. In the Netherlands, historical distribution data even show that the trend began much earlier: between 1890 and 1940, the distributions of many species contracted, long before modern monitoring programmes began.

These examples make clear that today’s situation is often the result of a long development. Many species were gradually confined to nature reserves, roadside verges, railway embankments or the few remaining fragments of habitat.

Wildlife-friendly gardens alone are not enough

Wildlife-friendly gardens, flower-rich areas and small remnant habitats are valuable. They provide food, create stepping stones and can help more common species in particular. For many threatened butterflies, however, they are not enough. These species need larger, permanently suitable and interconnected habitats—such as nutrient-poor meadows, wetlands, heathland, open forests, edges or extensively managed pastures.

Butterfly conservation must therefore go beyond individual private measures. Larger habitat networks, suitable management, less fertilisation, fewer pesticides, open microhabitats and a landscape mosaic of mowing, grazing, edges, fallows and open woody structures are crucial. Wildlife-friendly gardens can help. But the protection of specialised butterflies is decided above all where their actual habitats are located: in meadows, heathland, peatlands, open forests, edges and extensively managed cultural landscapes.

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